Chapter One: (possible distant relative of the human?)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIW4lqLz_Rc
Chapter two: (difference between ionic and covalent bonds)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERy18NwemVc
Chapter three: (Properties of water resulting in H-bonds)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jh2qpsZe6GA
Chapter Four: (Enantiomers)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-eMr1kxorc&feature=related
Chapter Five: (protein structure)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lijQ3a8yUYQ
Chapter Six: (cell tour)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--NXZCX9VPA&feature=related
Chapter Seven (Cell membrane)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GW0lqf4Fqpg&feature=related
Chapter Eight: (ATP Cycle)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ki9Tly-A-Rc&feature=related
Chapter Nine: (Cellular Respiration)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x-stLxqPt6E&feature=PlayList&p=E705480FEF95FE96&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=41
Chapter Ten: (Summary in song) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_1mxZdF2TY&feature=channel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYSD1jOD1dQ&feature=channel
Chapter eleven (G-proteins)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NB7YfAvez3o
Chapter Twelve: (Cell cycle check points)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGx50C1w8YY
Chapter Thirteen: (Meiosis)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uh7c8YbYGqo
Chapter 15: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H1HaR47Dqfw
Chapter 16: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=teV62zrm2P0
Chapter 17: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41_Ne5mS2ls
Chapter 18: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7CMWuIZ2So
Chapter 19: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEdcXQvwxk4
Chapter 20: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhUGguUNR7Q&feature=related
Chapter 21: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-gVh3z6MwdU
Chapter 22: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqhlGaVxV3E
Chapter 23: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8r5dtUmAbeE&feature=related
Chapter 24: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YCoEiLOV8jc
Chapter 25: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWVoXZPOCGk
Tuesday, October 13, 2009
Key terms
Chapter One:
Systems Biology- Studying biology by looking at one system at a time and seeing how it contributes to the whole
Eukaryotic cell- Make up plants and animals these cells are more complex and contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles
Prokaryotic cell- Simpler kind of cells make up bacteria and archea lack a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
DNA- genetic material
Genome- The entire genetic sequence (DNA strands) of an organism
Bioinformatics- The use of technology to take lots of biological data and organize and group it
Negative Feedback- The production of something stimulates a reaction that will slow down the production
Positive feedback- Production of something stimulates the production of more of that substance
Inductive reasoning- Taking specific observations and making generalizations based on them
Deductive reasoning- Using general principles to make predictions about specific biological interactions/ processes
Controlled experiment- An experiment where one group doesn’t receive the experimental variation
Theory- A hypothesis that has been tested many times with the same outcome and usually a more broad
Chapter two:
Anion- Negatively charged ion
Cation- Positively charged ion
Isotope- A different form of the same element, the number of protons are the same but the number of neutrons differs
Covalent bond- A bond in which atoms share electrons
Ionic bond- Negatively and positively charged ions are bonded by their attraction to each other
Valence- the number of unpaired electrons needed to fill in the atom’s outmost valence
Van der Waals interactions- weak interaction between molecules; a result of very slightly charged regions
Orbital- The space where an electron is found 90% of the time
Electro negativity- The strength of the pull on atom puts on shared electrons
Nonpolar Covalent bond- covalent bonds where both atoms are equally electronegative
Hydrogen Bond- When hydrogen already covalently bonded to an atom is attracted to a slightly another electronegative atom
Chemical equilibrium- The concentration of reactants and products remain the same ratio because the rate of reaction is the same as the rate of decomposition
Chapter Three:
Adhesion- The attraction between a molecules and a different type of molecule
Cohesion- A substances attraction to its own molecules
Hydration shell- water molecules surrounding the individual ions of a dissolved solution so they wont reattach
Hydrophilic- Water loving
Hydrophobic- fear of water (substances that don’t mix well with water)
Colloid- A mixture where the particles too big to dissolve in water remain suspended in it
Molarity- Moles of solute/ liters of solution
Buffers- Minimize the concentration of acid or base in a solution brings the solution closer to neutral
PH- The concentration of H ions in a solution (low Ph acidic high Ph basic)
Specific heat- The amount of heat a substance has to absorb to change one gram one degree
Emergent properties- When alone these properties aren’t as important as they are when taken into consideration in relation to the whole
Surface tension- how hard it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
Chapter four:
Hydroxyl Group- Hydrogen and Oxygen
Carbonyl Group- Carbon double bonded to Oxygen
Carboxyl Group- Combination of hydroxyl and carbonyl
Amino Group- Two hydrogen bonded to nitrogen
Sulfhydryl Group- Sulfur bonded to Hydrogen
Phospate- Phosphorous bonded to four oxygen atoms (double bonded to one of them)
Methyl- Carbon bonded to three hydrogen
Isomer- A compound with the molecular formula but a different function because of different arrangement of atoms (geometric, structural, or enantiomers)
Hyrdocarbon- A compound made of only carbon and hydrogen
Functional Group- A common composition of molecules typically attached to a carbon skeleton giving it various properties
Chapter Five:
Dehydration reaction- A reaction that connects monomers forming polymers by the release of a water molecule
Hydrolysis- When adding a water molecule breaks the bonds of a polymer breaking them down into monomers again
Carbohydrates- Sugars; polymers of larger sugar formed from monosaccharides
Glycosidic linkage- The bonding between monomers of sugars of form polymer sugars
Starch- A polymer of glucose mostly found in plants
Cellulose- A polysaccharide common in plants that is not digestible by humans
Lipids- Group of polymers grouped together because they are all hydrophobic
Fat- Made of glycerol and a fatty acid
Triacylglycerol- Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol
Polypeptides- Polymers of amino acids; makes up proteins
Peptide bond- A bond between amino acids that forms polypeptides
Denaturation- When a protein unravels causing it not to function
Polynucleotides- Nucleic acids in polymer form
Chapter six:
Cytosol- the gel substance inside the cell where all the pieces of the cell reside
Plasma Membrane- The barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside allows the transport of certain substances
Nuclear Lamina- Proteins that help the nucleus maintain its shape by supporting the nuclear envelope
Ribosomes- Made of RNA and proteins carry out protein synthesis
Transport Vesicles- Sacs of membrane that transport products of the ER to the Golgi apparatus
Phagocytosis- When a cell engulfs a large particle or sometimes even another cell (endocytosis)
Cristae- The mitochondrion folding of the inner membrane
Mitochondrial Matrix- The space of the mitochondria that is enclosed by the inner membrane
Thylakoids- Sacs within chloroplasts that make up stacks called Granum
Stroma- The liquid within the inner membrane of chloroplasts
Cytoskeleton- The system that helps the cell maintains shape and stabilizes it for reproduction and movement
Centrosome- Found in animal cells organizes the microtubules
Chapter Seven:
Selective permeability- Allows certain substances to cross easier than others; a property of membrane
Amphipathic- Having hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Intergral Protein- Proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic core of the membrane
Peripheral Proteins- Proteins attached to the outside of the membrane
Glycolipids- A carb covalently bonded to a lipid
Glycoproteins- Carbs covalently bonded to protein
Aquaporins- Transport proteins that aid in water transport
Passive transport- transport that doesn’t require energy from the cell
Tonicity- the ability of a solution to cause a solution to gain or lose water
Osmoregulation- control of water balance
Membrane potential- The voltage across a membrane
Cotransport- A substance that has already left the membrane coming back across the membrane with another substance
Chatper eight:
Metabolism- All chemical reactions within the cell
Catabolic pathway- A metabolic pathway that breaks things down and releases energy
Anabolic Pathway- A metabolic pathway that builds things absorbing energy
Bioenergetics- The study of energy’s flow through an organism
Entropy- The measure of disorder or randomness a result of energy transfers
Free energy- Energy that do work within a system at constant temp and pressure
Energy couplings- The use of an exergonic reaction to power an endergonic reaction
Phosphorylated- A molecule that ATP has attached to
Substrate- The reactant an enzyme is going to speed up the reaction of
Active site- Where the substrate bonds to the enzyme
Chapter Nine:
Fermentation- anerobic respiration in other words the break down of sugars without oxygen
Oxidation- the loss of electrons from a substance during a reactions the substance that is oxidated is also the reducing agent
Reduction- Is the gain of electrons during reactions the reduced molecule is also known as the oxidizing agents
NAD- A coenzyme that carries electron in the electron transport chain of respiration
Glycolysis- Breaks down sugar in G3P and then Pyruvate
Citric Acid cycle- The cycle inside the mitochondria that starts by fixing Acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate to form citrate it releases NADH and FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation- The ATP that is formed during the electron transport chain its named as such because it is the result of a redox reaction
Subsrate-level phosphorylation- Phosphorylation that occurs inside of an enzyme this type of ATP production occurs during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
Acetyl CoA- This is an enzyme that Pyruvate transforms into upon entering the mitochondria it fixes to the citric acid cycle
Cytochromes- The protein complexes that are in the mitochondrial membrane and function in the electron transport chain
Chemiosmosis- The creation of a concentration gradient that powers cellular work
ATP Synthase- A protein that is in the membrane of the mitochondria it works like a small motor to power ATP synthesis
Obligate Anaerobes- Organisms that only use fermentation or other form of anerobic respiration and can’t survive with oxygen
Facultative Anerobes- Can use either aerobic or anerobic respiration to survive
Beta Oxidation- Breaks down fatty acids into two carbon fragments and then enters the citric acid cycle as Acetly CoA
Chapter Ten:
Photosynthesis- the process by which plants make energy storing molecules from sunlight and water
Autotrophs- “self feeders” Organisms that can sustain themselves without consuming other living things
Heterotrophs- Organisms that survive by consuming other living things
Chlorophyll- The green pigment located in the cholorplasts that absorb sunlight
Mesophyll- The tissue in he interior of the leaf where most photosynthesis occurs
Stomata- The pores in the leaf of the cell where water is absorbed
Stroma- The fluid within the chloroplasts
Thylakoids- Membrane sacs inside the inner membrane of the chloroplasts
Light reactions- The reactions where water is split and ATP and NADPH is formed for use in the Calvin cycle
Calvin cycle- Where Co2 is fixed to form G3P and later large carb molecules
Photophosphorylation- The way in which the light reactions power the formulation of ATP
Carbon Fixation- The initial adding of carbon to organic compounds
Wavelength- The distance between the peaks of light shorter the wavelength the higher the energy
Electromagnetic Spectrum- The entire range of radiation
Visible Light- The radiation with wavelengths from 380-750nm
Photons- Particles of light
Carotenoids- Acessory pigments that are able to absorb violet and blue-green light making photosynthesis more efficient
Photosystem- Contained within the thylakoid membrane these absorb light and transfer electrons from one to the other
Reaction-center complex- Part of the Photosystem this is a protein complex that aids in the absorbtion of light and exciting of electrons
Light-harveting complex- Made up pigments that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light
G3P- A three carbon sugar that is made during the energy investment phase of glycolysis and produced as a product of the Calvin cycle
Rubisco- The enzyme that Co2 fixes to the Calvin cycle
Photorespiration- When the Calvin cycles fixes O2 instead of Co2 to produce Co2 for photosynthesis
Chapter Eleven:
Signal Transduction pathway- The steps that are taken to get a signal from the membrane to the cellular reaction
Local Regulators- Signaling molecules that only travel a short distance to regulate the functions of nearby cells
Hormones- Chemicals used for long distance signaling
Ligand- The signaling molecules that bind to the receptor
G protein- Binds to GTP to be activated or GDP in the inactive which then opens up the G-receptor for signals
Receptor tyrosine kinases- The type of receptor that is activated by forming a dimmer and then adding P
Ligand-Gate ion Channel- a membrane receptor that only works when the signaling molecule opens it up for ions to flow in
Protein Kinase- An enzyme that transfers P from ATP to a protein
Protein Phosphatases- Enzymes that can quickly remove P from proteins
Second messengers- Small non-proteins or ions that work in signaling pathways
Scaffolding protein- A large relay protein that several other relay proteins attach to at the same time
Apoptosis- Programmed cell death performed to protect surrounding cells and prevent the reproduction of DNA dysfunctional cells
Chapter twelve:
Cell division- The reproduction of cells
Genome- A cells genetic information
Chromosomes- What DNA molecules are packaged into
Somatic Cells- Non reproductive cells that have 46 chromosomes
Gametes- Reproductive cells that only have 23 chromosomes
Chromatin- Complexes of DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes
Sister Chromatids- Every time chromosomes are duplicated into two of these
Centromere- The region where the chromatids are attached
Mitosis- Division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis- The division of the cytoplasm
Meiosis- The cell division that results in reproductive cells that have only one set of chromosomes
Mitotic phase- The part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis
Interphase- 90% of the cell cycle that includes growth and the copying of the DNA but not the actual division
Mitotic Spindle- Fibers made of microtubules and proteins that start to form during prophase it later plays a role in separating the chromatids
Chapter thirteen:
Heredity- The transfer of traits from one generation to the next
Genetics- The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation
Gametes- Reproductive cells (haploid)
Locus- A gene’s specific location on a chromosome
Clone- A genetic exact copy of something else
Sex chromosomes- The X and Y chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism along with other genetic traits
Autosomes- all the chromosomes an organism contains besides the sex chromosomes
Diploid cell- has a single set of chromosomes (gametes) N= number of chromosomes
Haploid cell- Double the set of chromosomes (somatic cells) 2n= number of chromosomes
Chiasma- the X shaped region that the homlogs cross over and hold together
Systems Biology- Studying biology by looking at one system at a time and seeing how it contributes to the whole
Eukaryotic cell- Make up plants and animals these cells are more complex and contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles
Prokaryotic cell- Simpler kind of cells make up bacteria and archea lack a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
DNA- genetic material
Genome- The entire genetic sequence (DNA strands) of an organism
Bioinformatics- The use of technology to take lots of biological data and organize and group it
Negative Feedback- The production of something stimulates a reaction that will slow down the production
Positive feedback- Production of something stimulates the production of more of that substance
Inductive reasoning- Taking specific observations and making generalizations based on them
Deductive reasoning- Using general principles to make predictions about specific biological interactions/ processes
Controlled experiment- An experiment where one group doesn’t receive the experimental variation
Theory- A hypothesis that has been tested many times with the same outcome and usually a more broad
Chapter two:
Anion- Negatively charged ion
Cation- Positively charged ion
Isotope- A different form of the same element, the number of protons are the same but the number of neutrons differs
Covalent bond- A bond in which atoms share electrons
Ionic bond- Negatively and positively charged ions are bonded by their attraction to each other
Valence- the number of unpaired electrons needed to fill in the atom’s outmost valence
Van der Waals interactions- weak interaction between molecules; a result of very slightly charged regions
Orbital- The space where an electron is found 90% of the time
Electro negativity- The strength of the pull on atom puts on shared electrons
Nonpolar Covalent bond- covalent bonds where both atoms are equally electronegative
Hydrogen Bond- When hydrogen already covalently bonded to an atom is attracted to a slightly another electronegative atom
Chemical equilibrium- The concentration of reactants and products remain the same ratio because the rate of reaction is the same as the rate of decomposition
Chapter Three:
Adhesion- The attraction between a molecules and a different type of molecule
Cohesion- A substances attraction to its own molecules
Hydration shell- water molecules surrounding the individual ions of a dissolved solution so they wont reattach
Hydrophilic- Water loving
Hydrophobic- fear of water (substances that don’t mix well with water)
Colloid- A mixture where the particles too big to dissolve in water remain suspended in it
Molarity- Moles of solute/ liters of solution
Buffers- Minimize the concentration of acid or base in a solution brings the solution closer to neutral
PH- The concentration of H ions in a solution (low Ph acidic high Ph basic)
Specific heat- The amount of heat a substance has to absorb to change one gram one degree
Emergent properties- When alone these properties aren’t as important as they are when taken into consideration in relation to the whole
Surface tension- how hard it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
Chapter four:
Hydroxyl Group- Hydrogen and Oxygen
Carbonyl Group- Carbon double bonded to Oxygen
Carboxyl Group- Combination of hydroxyl and carbonyl
Amino Group- Two hydrogen bonded to nitrogen
Sulfhydryl Group- Sulfur bonded to Hydrogen
Phospate- Phosphorous bonded to four oxygen atoms (double bonded to one of them)
Methyl- Carbon bonded to three hydrogen
Isomer- A compound with the molecular formula but a different function because of different arrangement of atoms (geometric, structural, or enantiomers)
Hyrdocarbon- A compound made of only carbon and hydrogen
Functional Group- A common composition of molecules typically attached to a carbon skeleton giving it various properties
Chapter Five:
Dehydration reaction- A reaction that connects monomers forming polymers by the release of a water molecule
Hydrolysis- When adding a water molecule breaks the bonds of a polymer breaking them down into monomers again
Carbohydrates- Sugars; polymers of larger sugar formed from monosaccharides
Glycosidic linkage- The bonding between monomers of sugars of form polymer sugars
Starch- A polymer of glucose mostly found in plants
Cellulose- A polysaccharide common in plants that is not digestible by humans
Lipids- Group of polymers grouped together because they are all hydrophobic
Fat- Made of glycerol and a fatty acid
Triacylglycerol- Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol
Polypeptides- Polymers of amino acids; makes up proteins
Peptide bond- A bond between amino acids that forms polypeptides
Denaturation- When a protein unravels causing it not to function
Polynucleotides- Nucleic acids in polymer form
Chapter six:
Cytosol- the gel substance inside the cell where all the pieces of the cell reside
Plasma Membrane- The barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside allows the transport of certain substances
Nuclear Lamina- Proteins that help the nucleus maintain its shape by supporting the nuclear envelope
Ribosomes- Made of RNA and proteins carry out protein synthesis
Transport Vesicles- Sacs of membrane that transport products of the ER to the Golgi apparatus
Phagocytosis- When a cell engulfs a large particle or sometimes even another cell (endocytosis)
Cristae- The mitochondrion folding of the inner membrane
Mitochondrial Matrix- The space of the mitochondria that is enclosed by the inner membrane
Thylakoids- Sacs within chloroplasts that make up stacks called Granum
Stroma- The liquid within the inner membrane of chloroplasts
Cytoskeleton- The system that helps the cell maintains shape and stabilizes it for reproduction and movement
Centrosome- Found in animal cells organizes the microtubules
Chapter Seven:
Selective permeability- Allows certain substances to cross easier than others; a property of membrane
Amphipathic- Having hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Intergral Protein- Proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic core of the membrane
Peripheral Proteins- Proteins attached to the outside of the membrane
Glycolipids- A carb covalently bonded to a lipid
Glycoproteins- Carbs covalently bonded to protein
Aquaporins- Transport proteins that aid in water transport
Passive transport- transport that doesn’t require energy from the cell
Tonicity- the ability of a solution to cause a solution to gain or lose water
Osmoregulation- control of water balance
Membrane potential- The voltage across a membrane
Cotransport- A substance that has already left the membrane coming back across the membrane with another substance
Chatper eight:
Metabolism- All chemical reactions within the cell
Catabolic pathway- A metabolic pathway that breaks things down and releases energy
Anabolic Pathway- A metabolic pathway that builds things absorbing energy
Bioenergetics- The study of energy’s flow through an organism
Entropy- The measure of disorder or randomness a result of energy transfers
Free energy- Energy that do work within a system at constant temp and pressure
Energy couplings- The use of an exergonic reaction to power an endergonic reaction
Phosphorylated- A molecule that ATP has attached to
Substrate- The reactant an enzyme is going to speed up the reaction of
Active site- Where the substrate bonds to the enzyme
Chapter Nine:
Fermentation- anerobic respiration in other words the break down of sugars without oxygen
Oxidation- the loss of electrons from a substance during a reactions the substance that is oxidated is also the reducing agent
Reduction- Is the gain of electrons during reactions the reduced molecule is also known as the oxidizing agents
NAD- A coenzyme that carries electron in the electron transport chain of respiration
Glycolysis- Breaks down sugar in G3P and then Pyruvate
Citric Acid cycle- The cycle inside the mitochondria that starts by fixing Acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate to form citrate it releases NADH and FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation- The ATP that is formed during the electron transport chain its named as such because it is the result of a redox reaction
Subsrate-level phosphorylation- Phosphorylation that occurs inside of an enzyme this type of ATP production occurs during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
Acetyl CoA- This is an enzyme that Pyruvate transforms into upon entering the mitochondria it fixes to the citric acid cycle
Cytochromes- The protein complexes that are in the mitochondrial membrane and function in the electron transport chain
Chemiosmosis- The creation of a concentration gradient that powers cellular work
ATP Synthase- A protein that is in the membrane of the mitochondria it works like a small motor to power ATP synthesis
Obligate Anaerobes- Organisms that only use fermentation or other form of anerobic respiration and can’t survive with oxygen
Facultative Anerobes- Can use either aerobic or anerobic respiration to survive
Beta Oxidation- Breaks down fatty acids into two carbon fragments and then enters the citric acid cycle as Acetly CoA
Chapter Ten:
Photosynthesis- the process by which plants make energy storing molecules from sunlight and water
Autotrophs- “self feeders” Organisms that can sustain themselves without consuming other living things
Heterotrophs- Organisms that survive by consuming other living things
Chlorophyll- The green pigment located in the cholorplasts that absorb sunlight
Mesophyll- The tissue in he interior of the leaf where most photosynthesis occurs
Stomata- The pores in the leaf of the cell where water is absorbed
Stroma- The fluid within the chloroplasts
Thylakoids- Membrane sacs inside the inner membrane of the chloroplasts
Light reactions- The reactions where water is split and ATP and NADPH is formed for use in the Calvin cycle
Calvin cycle- Where Co2 is fixed to form G3P and later large carb molecules
Photophosphorylation- The way in which the light reactions power the formulation of ATP
Carbon Fixation- The initial adding of carbon to organic compounds
Wavelength- The distance between the peaks of light shorter the wavelength the higher the energy
Electromagnetic Spectrum- The entire range of radiation
Visible Light- The radiation with wavelengths from 380-750nm
Photons- Particles of light
Carotenoids- Acessory pigments that are able to absorb violet and blue-green light making photosynthesis more efficient
Photosystem- Contained within the thylakoid membrane these absorb light and transfer electrons from one to the other
Reaction-center complex- Part of the Photosystem this is a protein complex that aids in the absorbtion of light and exciting of electrons
Light-harveting complex- Made up pigments that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light
G3P- A three carbon sugar that is made during the energy investment phase of glycolysis and produced as a product of the Calvin cycle
Rubisco- The enzyme that Co2 fixes to the Calvin cycle
Photorespiration- When the Calvin cycles fixes O2 instead of Co2 to produce Co2 for photosynthesis
Chapter Eleven:
Signal Transduction pathway- The steps that are taken to get a signal from the membrane to the cellular reaction
Local Regulators- Signaling molecules that only travel a short distance to regulate the functions of nearby cells
Hormones- Chemicals used for long distance signaling
Ligand- The signaling molecules that bind to the receptor
G protein- Binds to GTP to be activated or GDP in the inactive which then opens up the G-receptor for signals
Receptor tyrosine kinases- The type of receptor that is activated by forming a dimmer and then adding P
Ligand-Gate ion Channel- a membrane receptor that only works when the signaling molecule opens it up for ions to flow in
Protein Kinase- An enzyme that transfers P from ATP to a protein
Protein Phosphatases- Enzymes that can quickly remove P from proteins
Second messengers- Small non-proteins or ions that work in signaling pathways
Scaffolding protein- A large relay protein that several other relay proteins attach to at the same time
Apoptosis- Programmed cell death performed to protect surrounding cells and prevent the reproduction of DNA dysfunctional cells
Chapter twelve:
Cell division- The reproduction of cells
Genome- A cells genetic information
Chromosomes- What DNA molecules are packaged into
Somatic Cells- Non reproductive cells that have 46 chromosomes
Gametes- Reproductive cells that only have 23 chromosomes
Chromatin- Complexes of DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes
Sister Chromatids- Every time chromosomes are duplicated into two of these
Centromere- The region where the chromatids are attached
Mitosis- Division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis- The division of the cytoplasm
Meiosis- The cell division that results in reproductive cells that have only one set of chromosomes
Mitotic phase- The part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis
Interphase- 90% of the cell cycle that includes growth and the copying of the DNA but not the actual division
Mitotic Spindle- Fibers made of microtubules and proteins that start to form during prophase it later plays a role in separating the chromatids
Chapter thirteen:
Heredity- The transfer of traits from one generation to the next
Genetics- The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation
Gametes- Reproductive cells (haploid)
Locus- A gene’s specific location on a chromosome
Clone- A genetic exact copy of something else
Sex chromosomes- The X and Y chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism along with other genetic traits
Autosomes- all the chromosomes an organism contains besides the sex chromosomes
Diploid cell- has a single set of chromosomes (gametes) N= number of chromosomes
Haploid cell- Double the set of chromosomes (somatic cells) 2n= number of chromosomes
Chiasma- the X shaped region that the homlogs cross over and hold together
Chapter Eight Reading Journal
What is the function of an enzyme in metabolic reactions?
Most reactions within the cell have to occur once molecules have absorbed enough energy to become unstable. Once reactants reach the “transition state” they are able to form products but they need activation energy to reach this point, enzymes provide this activation energy. Enzymes aid reactions that would eventually occur, but they speed up the process.
How do Enzymes work?
An enzyme has only a specific shape that allows only certain reactants to fit into the enzyme. This shape or cut out is called the active site once the reactant(s) are inside the active site they enzyme is able to speed up their breaking apart and then release them as separate products. The enzyme either speeds up the process by allowing the optimal conditions (position Ph ect) for the reactions or by fitting into the active site it puts stress on the reactants decreasing their stability making it easier for them to react.
What is the difference between an Exergonic and endogonic reaction?
An exergonic reaction is also known as a spontaneous reaction it will just happen without the input of energy. It releases free energy that can be used for work or more reactions. These reactions start with a high energy potential and move to a lower more stable energy potential this is also know as it moving towards equilibrium. Endergonic reactions start with a lower potential energy and then as it absorbs energy it moves to a higher potential. These reactions take the free energy from their surroundings and essentially store it for a later exergonic reaction.
Facts:
-All chemical reactions within organisms are referred to as metabolism
- Most energy within the cell is produced by ATP (exergonic reaction)
- A substrate is what an enzyme is aiding in reaction
- If a cell reached metabolic equilibrium it would die the system keeps it from reaching equilibrium so the cycle of energy can continue
- Inhibitors prevent a substrate from bonding with the enzyme thus preventing enzymatic processes
This figure describes the process of ATP breaking down in order to produce energy for the cell. Since ATP is at an unstable energy level the original reaction occurs from the desire for energy equilibrium and so one of the phosphates breaks off forming ADP and an a single phosphate. The first reaction is exergonic and then the cell uses energy from other sources such as food intake or photosynthesis to take the ADP and by an endergonic reaction reform ATP. In this cycle the ATP→ADP + P→ATP so the energy is continually recycled within the cell.
Summary:
Energy is the ability to do work and all living organisms need energy to live energy is constantly being released and absorbed by chemical reactions within the cell also called metabolism. Metabolism follows pathways either catabolic (breaking down) or anabolic (building molecules). There are three types of energy kinetic (motion), Potential energy, or activation energy (energy needed to get kinetic energy going). There are two laws of thermodynamics: 1. Energy can’t be created or destroyed only transferred into a different form 2. Transfers of energy increase entropy.
Free energy is the energy able to do work in the cell and reactions move one of two ways either from high potential energy to low potential energy releasing free energy in the process or from stable potential energy to high potential energy essentially absorbing free energy and storing it. The cell needs to break down things with stored energy and enzymes aid in this process by bonding to the molecule and creating conditions optimal for it to react.
Most reactions within the cell have to occur once molecules have absorbed enough energy to become unstable. Once reactants reach the “transition state” they are able to form products but they need activation energy to reach this point, enzymes provide this activation energy. Enzymes aid reactions that would eventually occur, but they speed up the process.
How do Enzymes work?
An enzyme has only a specific shape that allows only certain reactants to fit into the enzyme. This shape or cut out is called the active site once the reactant(s) are inside the active site they enzyme is able to speed up their breaking apart and then release them as separate products. The enzyme either speeds up the process by allowing the optimal conditions (position Ph ect) for the reactions or by fitting into the active site it puts stress on the reactants decreasing their stability making it easier for them to react.
What is the difference between an Exergonic and endogonic reaction?
An exergonic reaction is also known as a spontaneous reaction it will just happen without the input of energy. It releases free energy that can be used for work or more reactions. These reactions start with a high energy potential and move to a lower more stable energy potential this is also know as it moving towards equilibrium. Endergonic reactions start with a lower potential energy and then as it absorbs energy it moves to a higher potential. These reactions take the free energy from their surroundings and essentially store it for a later exergonic reaction.
Facts:
-All chemical reactions within organisms are referred to as metabolism
- Most energy within the cell is produced by ATP (exergonic reaction)
- A substrate is what an enzyme is aiding in reaction
- If a cell reached metabolic equilibrium it would die the system keeps it from reaching equilibrium so the cycle of energy can continue
- Inhibitors prevent a substrate from bonding with the enzyme thus preventing enzymatic processes
This figure describes the process of ATP breaking down in order to produce energy for the cell. Since ATP is at an unstable energy level the original reaction occurs from the desire for energy equilibrium and so one of the phosphates breaks off forming ADP and an a single phosphate. The first reaction is exergonic and then the cell uses energy from other sources such as food intake or photosynthesis to take the ADP and by an endergonic reaction reform ATP. In this cycle the ATP→ADP + P→ATP so the energy is continually recycled within the cell.
Summary:
Energy is the ability to do work and all living organisms need energy to live energy is constantly being released and absorbed by chemical reactions within the cell also called metabolism. Metabolism follows pathways either catabolic (breaking down) or anabolic (building molecules). There are three types of energy kinetic (motion), Potential energy, or activation energy (energy needed to get kinetic energy going). There are two laws of thermodynamics: 1. Energy can’t be created or destroyed only transferred into a different form 2. Transfers of energy increase entropy.
Free energy is the energy able to do work in the cell and reactions move one of two ways either from high potential energy to low potential energy releasing free energy in the process or from stable potential energy to high potential energy essentially absorbing free energy and storing it. The cell needs to break down things with stored energy and enzymes aid in this process by bonding to the molecule and creating conditions optimal for it to react.
Sunday, October 11, 2009
Chapter Seven Reading Journal
What is the Membrane composed of?
The main component of the membrane is the Phospolipid bilayer. Phospolipids double up so that their hydrophilic heads are on the outside of the cell and the inside of the cell and their hydrophobic regions are in the middle. Proteins are also major components of the membrane some go through the entire membrane and some are merely attached to the outside. The proteins are useful in identifying other cells and transporting things from one side of the membrane to the other. Cholesterol is also embedded in the membrane to act as a temperature regulator. Carbohydrates and other lipids also attach themselves to the outside of the membrane as markers.
What is the difference between Intergral Proteins and Peripheral proteins?
Intergral proteins go into the core of the membrane some go all the way through to the other side where some just reach the hydrophobic middle. Those that go all the way through have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions to match up with the corresponding portions of the bilayer. Peripheral Proteins are just attached to the surface of the membrane.
Explain the difference between active and passive transport?
Transport is the way that substances move from one side of the membrane to the other. Passive transport doesn’t require energy from the cell. Forms of passive transport include: diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Active transport goes against the concentration gradient and therefore requires cell energy.
Facts
- Fluid mosaic model is the most common model of the membrane
- One of the most important characteristics of the membrane is that is hydrophobic and hydrophilic
- A membrane that is exposed to colder temperatures will have more unsaturated fatty acids because they are liquid at lower temperatures
- The membrane is selectively permeable
- Transport proteins can aid diffusion without using cell energy
This diagram shows the process of osmosis in which water moves from the side of a membrane with a lower concentration of solute to the side with the higher concentration of solute to balance out the concentrations. It can also be said that water moves from hypotonic solutions to hypertonic solutions. It does this until there is equilibrium (the same concentration on both sides) this is also called an isotonic solution.
Summary:
The membrane maintains fluidity because of the level on unsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipids as well as cholesterol keeping a stable temperature. Proteins also make up a large portion of the membrane they help the cell with transport, provides enzymes, creates signals, and is useful in allowing cells to recognize each other. The membrane is selectively permeable and small nonpolar molecules have the easiest time making it from one side to the other. Thing also cross through processes of diffusion or osmosis or active transport through energy release from the cell. Things can also be transported through endocytosis or exocytosis.
The main component of the membrane is the Phospolipid bilayer. Phospolipids double up so that their hydrophilic heads are on the outside of the cell and the inside of the cell and their hydrophobic regions are in the middle. Proteins are also major components of the membrane some go through the entire membrane and some are merely attached to the outside. The proteins are useful in identifying other cells and transporting things from one side of the membrane to the other. Cholesterol is also embedded in the membrane to act as a temperature regulator. Carbohydrates and other lipids also attach themselves to the outside of the membrane as markers.
What is the difference between Intergral Proteins and Peripheral proteins?
Intergral proteins go into the core of the membrane some go all the way through to the other side where some just reach the hydrophobic middle. Those that go all the way through have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions to match up with the corresponding portions of the bilayer. Peripheral Proteins are just attached to the surface of the membrane.
Explain the difference between active and passive transport?
Transport is the way that substances move from one side of the membrane to the other. Passive transport doesn’t require energy from the cell. Forms of passive transport include: diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Active transport goes against the concentration gradient and therefore requires cell energy.
Facts
- Fluid mosaic model is the most common model of the membrane
- One of the most important characteristics of the membrane is that is hydrophobic and hydrophilic
- A membrane that is exposed to colder temperatures will have more unsaturated fatty acids because they are liquid at lower temperatures
- The membrane is selectively permeable
- Transport proteins can aid diffusion without using cell energy
This diagram shows the process of osmosis in which water moves from the side of a membrane with a lower concentration of solute to the side with the higher concentration of solute to balance out the concentrations. It can also be said that water moves from hypotonic solutions to hypertonic solutions. It does this until there is equilibrium (the same concentration on both sides) this is also called an isotonic solution.
Summary:
The membrane maintains fluidity because of the level on unsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipids as well as cholesterol keeping a stable temperature. Proteins also make up a large portion of the membrane they help the cell with transport, provides enzymes, creates signals, and is useful in allowing cells to recognize each other. The membrane is selectively permeable and small nonpolar molecules have the easiest time making it from one side to the other. Thing also cross through processes of diffusion or osmosis or active transport through energy release from the cell. Things can also be transported through endocytosis or exocytosis.
Chapter Six Reading Journal
What are major differences between plant cells and animal cells?
Plant cells have a cell wall that helps keep the plant cell in a more solid shape both types of cells have a cytoskeleton plant cells just have this extra structure because animal cells need more mobility. Along with the cell wall plant cells have pasmodesmata, which helps their walls to attach to the walls of other cells. Plant cells also have chloroplasts, which animal cells don’t contain. A vacuole is also very common in plant cells this does the job lysosomes usually do in a animal cell. Thus a plant cell lacks lysosomes and animal cells lack a central vacuole. Animal cells usually have a flagellum, which enables them to propel themselves. Animal cells also contain a centrosome, which produces microtubules.
What is the Cytoskeleton composed of and why is it important to the cell?
The cytoskeleton is made out of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. The cytoskeleton helps a cell maintain its shape, enables it to move, and aids in cell division. Microtubules are tubes like structures made from the protein tubulin this supports cell shape, separate chromosomes during cell division, and create a track so that organelles can move along it. Microfilaments are rod like structures formed from the protein actin responsible for the gel consistency of outer cytoplasmic layer. Intermediate Filaments are cable-like made from various proteins depending on the type of cell. The help keep certain organelles in place such as the nucleus.
What major cell structures produce energy for the cell?
The mitochondria are one of the most important structures in a eukaryotic cell. A cell can have one central mitochondrion or many mitochondria. It has a double membrane the inner membrane folds in on itself multiple times so that is has more surface area for respiration to occur. Enzyme and ATP reactions within the structure produce energy for the cell. In Plant cells chloroplast are extremely important for the production of energy. Chloroplasts convert sunlight into sugar in the cell. Peroxisomes also produce energy they are singularly membrane bound. They take the hydrogen out of certain compounds and combine it with oxygen forming hydrogen peroxide. This is used to break molecules down that then can be made into energy.
Facts:
- SEM is an electron microscope that scans the surface of a specimen
- TEM is an electron microscope that goes through a specimen (must be dead)
- Lysosomes are used to digest things in the cell
- The Golgi apparatus receives proteins from the ER and package them for use within the cell
- The Nucleus is the brain of the cell
This shows the structures within flagella and cilia. These projections grow out of animal cells and they help the cell to move. They grow out of the cytoskeleton of a cell and increase surface area. There is usually only one flagella and it moves in a snake like manner. If a cell has cilia it typically has several of them they move back and forth and also aid cell mobility.
Summary:
In order to see the details of cell structure we use light or electron microscopes. Electron microscopes show the cell in more detail. Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells differ in that prokaryotic cells are much simpler and lack a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. Eukaryotic cells are also typically larger. Plant and animal cells share most of the same organelles (see question 1) since they are both Eukaryotic.
The nucleus is the brain of the cell and its is enclosed in the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains the DNA of the cell. Ribosomes are subunits of proteins some of them are free in the cell and other are in the ER. ER is composed of smooth ER and Rough ER. Smooth ER aids in metabolism. Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it and therefore synthesizes proteins. The Golgi Apparatus functions as the packaging center of materials made by the ER. Lysosomes contain enzymes and are used as digestion centers. A vacuole serves the same function as the lysosome but it is only present in plant cells. Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes provided energy sources for the cell. The cytoskeleton helps the cell keep its shape and aid it in moving without falling apart as well as reproduction.
Plant cells have a cell wall that helps keep the plant cell in a more solid shape both types of cells have a cytoskeleton plant cells just have this extra structure because animal cells need more mobility. Along with the cell wall plant cells have pasmodesmata, which helps their walls to attach to the walls of other cells. Plant cells also have chloroplasts, which animal cells don’t contain. A vacuole is also very common in plant cells this does the job lysosomes usually do in a animal cell. Thus a plant cell lacks lysosomes and animal cells lack a central vacuole. Animal cells usually have a flagellum, which enables them to propel themselves. Animal cells also contain a centrosome, which produces microtubules.
What is the Cytoskeleton composed of and why is it important to the cell?
The cytoskeleton is made out of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. The cytoskeleton helps a cell maintain its shape, enables it to move, and aids in cell division. Microtubules are tubes like structures made from the protein tubulin this supports cell shape, separate chromosomes during cell division, and create a track so that organelles can move along it. Microfilaments are rod like structures formed from the protein actin responsible for the gel consistency of outer cytoplasmic layer. Intermediate Filaments are cable-like made from various proteins depending on the type of cell. The help keep certain organelles in place such as the nucleus.
What major cell structures produce energy for the cell?
The mitochondria are one of the most important structures in a eukaryotic cell. A cell can have one central mitochondrion or many mitochondria. It has a double membrane the inner membrane folds in on itself multiple times so that is has more surface area for respiration to occur. Enzyme and ATP reactions within the structure produce energy for the cell. In Plant cells chloroplast are extremely important for the production of energy. Chloroplasts convert sunlight into sugar in the cell. Peroxisomes also produce energy they are singularly membrane bound. They take the hydrogen out of certain compounds and combine it with oxygen forming hydrogen peroxide. This is used to break molecules down that then can be made into energy.
Facts:
- SEM is an electron microscope that scans the surface of a specimen
- TEM is an electron microscope that goes through a specimen (must be dead)
- Lysosomes are used to digest things in the cell
- The Golgi apparatus receives proteins from the ER and package them for use within the cell
- The Nucleus is the brain of the cell
This shows the structures within flagella and cilia. These projections grow out of animal cells and they help the cell to move. They grow out of the cytoskeleton of a cell and increase surface area. There is usually only one flagella and it moves in a snake like manner. If a cell has cilia it typically has several of them they move back and forth and also aid cell mobility.
Summary:
In order to see the details of cell structure we use light or electron microscopes. Electron microscopes show the cell in more detail. Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells differ in that prokaryotic cells are much simpler and lack a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. Eukaryotic cells are also typically larger. Plant and animal cells share most of the same organelles (see question 1) since they are both Eukaryotic.
The nucleus is the brain of the cell and its is enclosed in the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains the DNA of the cell. Ribosomes are subunits of proteins some of them are free in the cell and other are in the ER. ER is composed of smooth ER and Rough ER. Smooth ER aids in metabolism. Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it and therefore synthesizes proteins. The Golgi Apparatus functions as the packaging center of materials made by the ER. Lysosomes contain enzymes and are used as digestion centers. A vacuole serves the same function as the lysosome but it is only present in plant cells. Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes provided energy sources for the cell. The cytoskeleton helps the cell keep its shape and aid it in moving without falling apart as well as reproduction.
Chapter Five Reading Journal
Questions:
What are the differences between fats, phospholipids, and steroids?
Fats are made from three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol by what is called an ester linkage. Fats are non-polar and used to store energy. Phospholipids are made of two fatty acids and phosphorous bonded to glycerol. They are polar at the top where the phosphorous is and non-polar at the bottom where the two fatty acids are. Phospholipids make up cell membrane. Steroids are composed of four fused rings of carbon skeletons the function of a steroid is determined by the functional group that is attached to the rings.
What is an Amino Acid and why is it important?
An Amino acid is a molecule with the amino group and carboxyl group bonded to a central carbon, this carbon is also bonded to single hydrogen. This leaves one bonding site off the carbon which bonds to one of twenty different molecules. These twenty amino acids bond together to from polypeptides and proteins are made of either one polypeptide or several polypeptides bonded together.
Why are carbs, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids called macromolecules?
They are all named this way because they are huge molecules. They are all composed of many monomers that bond together through a dehydration reactions creating polymers. Many of these organic compounds are formed from these polymers or thousands of monomers bonding to other polymers.
Facts:
- Dehydration reactions form polymers
- Hydrolysis reactions break polymers apart
- Carbohydrates are composed of saccharies
- Lipids main common property is hydrophobia
- Nucleic acids are the macromolecules that are responsible for genes
This shows the structure of Phospholipids that consist of only two fatty acids compared to fats that are composed of three fatty acids. The third bonding site of the glycerol in the phospholipids is bonded to a phosphorous. This gives phospholipids different properties than fats because instead of the whole molecule being hydrophobic, one side is hydrophilic and the “tails” of fatty acids are hydrophobic. This property is important for the cell because layers of phospholipids make up the cell membrane and the hydrophilic portions are able to interact with the aqueous portions of the cell and the hydrophilic part of the phospholipids creates a barrier between the internal and external environment of the cell.
Summary: There are four main groups of large organic molecules called macromolecules, each group is very important for the functions of life. Carbohydrates are made up of saccharides and provide energy for the cell. Lipids are mostly common in that they are hydrophobic. Fats are used for energy storage and composed of three fatty acids and a glycerol. Phospholipids form the cell membrane and are made from two fatty acids and phosphorous. Steroids are made of four fused rings of carbon structures examples: cholesterol, hormones.
Proteins are composed of twenty different amino acids that form polypeptides. Proteins are formed from one or more polypeptides. Proteins have many functions. Nucleic acids are used to store and transmit genetic information. They made up DNA, which stores the information and RNA, which transmits the information.
What are the differences between fats, phospholipids, and steroids?
Fats are made from three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol by what is called an ester linkage. Fats are non-polar and used to store energy. Phospholipids are made of two fatty acids and phosphorous bonded to glycerol. They are polar at the top where the phosphorous is and non-polar at the bottom where the two fatty acids are. Phospholipids make up cell membrane. Steroids are composed of four fused rings of carbon skeletons the function of a steroid is determined by the functional group that is attached to the rings.
What is an Amino Acid and why is it important?
An Amino acid is a molecule with the amino group and carboxyl group bonded to a central carbon, this carbon is also bonded to single hydrogen. This leaves one bonding site off the carbon which bonds to one of twenty different molecules. These twenty amino acids bond together to from polypeptides and proteins are made of either one polypeptide or several polypeptides bonded together.
Why are carbs, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids called macromolecules?
They are all named this way because they are huge molecules. They are all composed of many monomers that bond together through a dehydration reactions creating polymers. Many of these organic compounds are formed from these polymers or thousands of monomers bonding to other polymers.
Facts:
- Dehydration reactions form polymers
- Hydrolysis reactions break polymers apart
- Carbohydrates are composed of saccharies
- Lipids main common property is hydrophobia
- Nucleic acids are the macromolecules that are responsible for genes
This shows the structure of Phospholipids that consist of only two fatty acids compared to fats that are composed of three fatty acids. The third bonding site of the glycerol in the phospholipids is bonded to a phosphorous. This gives phospholipids different properties than fats because instead of the whole molecule being hydrophobic, one side is hydrophilic and the “tails” of fatty acids are hydrophobic. This property is important for the cell because layers of phospholipids make up the cell membrane and the hydrophilic portions are able to interact with the aqueous portions of the cell and the hydrophilic part of the phospholipids creates a barrier between the internal and external environment of the cell.
Summary: There are four main groups of large organic molecules called macromolecules, each group is very important for the functions of life. Carbohydrates are made up of saccharides and provide energy for the cell. Lipids are mostly common in that they are hydrophobic. Fats are used for energy storage and composed of three fatty acids and a glycerol. Phospholipids form the cell membrane and are made from two fatty acids and phosphorous. Steroids are made of four fused rings of carbon structures examples: cholesterol, hormones.
Proteins are composed of twenty different amino acids that form polypeptides. Proteins are formed from one or more polypeptides. Proteins have many functions. Nucleic acids are used to store and transmit genetic information. They made up DNA, which stores the information and RNA, which transmits the information.
Chapter Four Reading Journal
What is an isomer and what are the three types of isomers?
An isomer is a compound that has the same ratio of molecules but a different structure. Structural isomers have different structures made out of the same molecules. Geometric isomers have the same structures with different atoms attached to the different bonding sites. Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.
What are hydrocarbons and why are their main characteristics?
Hydrocarbons are molecules made up of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. They are mostly hydrophobic because bonds between hydrogen and carbon are virtually nonpolar. Typically reactions involving hydrocarbons release a large amount of energy. These are the framework of the most complex organic molecules.
What are the functional groups?
Different groups of chemical compounds that attach to a carbon skeleton. All but methyl are hydrophilic to they increase the organic compounds’ ability to dissolve in water. The seven most important most important of these groups are: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl.
Facts:
- Organic chemistry is deals with compounds containing carbon
- Bond angles when carbon forms four single bonds are 109.5
- Carbon has four valence electrons in its outmost shell this contributes largely to its diversity
- Isomers of a compound can have complete opposite effects of the original when reacting with living things
- ATP (cells energy source) is made of three phosphate groups bonded together
The diagram above shows that a very slight change in chemical structure can have a huge impact. These two molecules only differ in functional the group they have attached to them at one end, but they have opposite effects. One is a male hormone and one is a female hormone this is an example of form fitting function organisms are very sensitive to even slight changes in molecular structure.
Summary:
Organic compounds are those made of carbon and they are prominent in living things therefore important to the study of biology. Carbon is very diverse because it has four valence electrons. Very often organic compounds with the same molecular formula have different properties because they are arranged differently (isomers). Functional groups contribute to the properties of an organic compound because they all have properties of their own.
An isomer is a compound that has the same ratio of molecules but a different structure. Structural isomers have different structures made out of the same molecules. Geometric isomers have the same structures with different atoms attached to the different bonding sites. Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.
What are hydrocarbons and why are their main characteristics?
Hydrocarbons are molecules made up of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. They are mostly hydrophobic because bonds between hydrogen and carbon are virtually nonpolar. Typically reactions involving hydrocarbons release a large amount of energy. These are the framework of the most complex organic molecules.
What are the functional groups?
Different groups of chemical compounds that attach to a carbon skeleton. All but methyl are hydrophilic to they increase the organic compounds’ ability to dissolve in water. The seven most important most important of these groups are: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl.
Facts:
- Organic chemistry is deals with compounds containing carbon
- Bond angles when carbon forms four single bonds are 109.5
- Carbon has four valence electrons in its outmost shell this contributes largely to its diversity
- Isomers of a compound can have complete opposite effects of the original when reacting with living things
- ATP (cells energy source) is made of three phosphate groups bonded together
The diagram above shows that a very slight change in chemical structure can have a huge impact. These two molecules only differ in functional the group they have attached to them at one end, but they have opposite effects. One is a male hormone and one is a female hormone this is an example of form fitting function organisms are very sensitive to even slight changes in molecular structure.
Summary:
Organic compounds are those made of carbon and they are prominent in living things therefore important to the study of biology. Carbon is very diverse because it has four valence electrons. Very often organic compounds with the same molecular formula have different properties because they are arranged differently (isomers). Functional groups contribute to the properties of an organic compound because they all have properties of their own.
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