Key terms

Chapter One:

Systems Biology- Studying biology by looking at one system at a time and seeing how it contributes to the whole

Eukaryotic cell- Make up plants and animals these cells are more complex and contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles

Prokaryotic cell- Simpler kind of cells make up bacteria and archea lack a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

DNA- genetic material

Genome- The entire genetic sequence (DNA strands) of an organism

Bioinformatics- The use of technology to take lots of biological data and organize and group it

Negative Feedback- The production of something stimulates a reaction that will slow down the production

Positive feedback- Production of something stimulates the production of more of that substance

Inductive reasoning- Taking specific observations and making generalizations based on them

Deductive reasoning- Using general principles to make predictions about specific biological interactions/ processes

Controlled experiment- An experiment where one group doesn’t receive the experimental variation

Theory- A hypothesis that has been tested many times with the same outcome and usually a more broad

Chapter two:

Anion- Negatively charged ion

Cation- Positively charged ion

Isotope- A different form of the same element, the number of protons are the same but the number of neutrons differs

Covalent bond- A bond in which atoms share electrons

Ionic bond- Negatively and positively charged ions are bonded by their attraction to each other

Valence- the number of unpaired electrons needed to fill in the atom’s outmost valence

Van der Waals interactions- weak interaction between molecules; a result of very slightly charged regions

Orbital- The space where an electron is found 90% of the time

Electro negativity- The strength of the pull on atom puts on shared electrons

Nonpolar Covalent bond- covalent bonds where both atoms are equally electronegative

Hydrogen Bond- When hydrogen already covalently bonded to an atom is attracted to a slightly another electronegative atom

Chemical equilibrium- The concentration of reactants and products remain the same ratio because the rate of reaction is the same as the rate of decomposition

Chapter Three:

Adhesion- The attraction between a molecules and a different type of molecule

Cohesion- A substances attraction to its own molecules

Hydration shell- water molecules surrounding the individual ions of a dissolved solution so they wont reattach

Hydrophilic- Water loving

Hydrophobic- fear of water (substances that don’t mix well with water)

Colloid- A mixture where the particles too big to dissolve in water remain suspended in it

Molarity- Moles of solute/ liters of solution

Buffers- Minimize the concentration of acid or base in a solution brings the solution closer to neutral

PH- The concentration of H ions in a solution (low Ph acidic high Ph basic)

Specific heat- The amount of heat a substance has to absorb to change one gram one degree

Emergent properties- When alone these properties aren’t as important as they are when taken into consideration in relation to the whole

Surface tension- how hard it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

Chapter four:

Hydroxyl Group- Hydrogen and Oxygen

Carbonyl Group- Carbon double bonded to Oxygen

Carboxyl Group- Combination of hydroxyl and carbonyl

Amino Group- Two hydrogen bonded to nitrogen

Sulfhydryl Group- Sulfur bonded to Hydrogen

Phospate- Phosphorous bonded to four oxygen atoms (double bonded to one of them)

Methyl- Carbon bonded to three hydrogen

Isomer- A compound with the molecular formula but a different function because of different arrangement of atoms (geometric, structural, or enantiomers)

Hyrdocarbon- A compound made of only carbon and hydrogen

Functional Group- A common composition of molecules typically attached to a carbon skeleton giving it various properties

Chapter Five:

Dehydration reaction- A reaction that connects monomers forming polymers by the release of a water molecule

Hydrolysis- When adding a water molecule breaks the bonds of a polymer breaking them down into monomers again

Carbohydrates- Sugars; polymers of larger sugar formed from monosaccharides

Glycosidic linkage- The bonding between monomers of sugars of form polymer sugars

Starch- A polymer of glucose mostly found in plants

Cellulose- A polysaccharide common in plants that is not digestible by humans

Lipids- Group of polymers grouped together because they are all hydrophobic

Fat- Made of glycerol and a fatty acid

Triacylglycerol- Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol

Polypeptides- Polymers of amino acids; makes up proteins

Peptide bond- A bond between amino acids that forms polypeptides

Denaturation- When a protein unravels causing it not to function

Polynucleotides- Nucleic acids in polymer form


Chapter six:

Cytosol- the gel substance inside the cell where all the pieces of the cell reside

Plasma Membrane- The barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside allows the transport of certain substances

Nuclear Lamina- Proteins that help the nucleus maintain its shape by supporting the nuclear envelope

Ribosomes- Made of RNA and proteins carry out protein synthesis

Transport Vesicles- Sacs of membrane that transport products of the ER to the Golgi apparatus

Phagocytosis- When a cell engulfs a large particle or sometimes even another cell (endocytosis)

Cristae- The mitochondrion folding of the inner membrane

Mitochondrial Matrix- The space of the mitochondria that is enclosed by the inner membrane

Thylakoids- Sacs within chloroplasts that make up stacks called Granum

Stroma- The liquid within the inner membrane of chloroplasts

Cytoskeleton- The system that helps the cell maintains shape and stabilizes it for reproduction and movement

Centrosome- Found in animal cells organizes the microtubules

Chapter Seven:

Selective permeability- Allows certain substances to cross easier than others; a property of membrane

Amphipathic- Having hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Intergral Protein- Proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic core of the membrane

Peripheral Proteins- Proteins attached to the outside of the membrane

Glycolipids- A carb covalently bonded to a lipid

Glycoproteins- Carbs covalently bonded to protein

Aquaporins- Transport proteins that aid in water transport

Passive transport- transport that doesn’t require energy from the cell

Tonicity- the ability of a solution to cause a solution to gain or lose water

Osmoregulation- control of water balance

Membrane potential- The voltage across a membrane

Cotransport- A substance that has already left the membrane coming back across the membrane with another substance

Chatper eight:

Metabolism- All chemical reactions within the cell

Catabolic pathway- A metabolic pathway that breaks things down and releases energy

Anabolic Pathway- A metabolic pathway that builds things absorbing energy

Bioenergetics- The study of energy’s flow through an organism

Entropy- The measure of disorder or randomness a result of energy transfers

Free energy- Energy that do work within a system at constant temp and pressure

Energy couplings- The use of an exergonic reaction to power an endergonic reaction

Phosphorylated- A molecule that ATP has attached to

Substrate- The reactant an enzyme is going to speed up the reaction of

Active site- Where the substrate bonds to the enzyme

Chapter Nine:

Fermentation- anerobic respiration in other words the break down of sugars without oxygen
Oxidation- the loss of electrons from a substance during a reactions the substance that is oxidated is also the reducing agent

Reduction- Is the gain of electrons during reactions the reduced molecule is also known as the oxidizing agents

NAD- A coenzyme that carries electron in the electron transport chain of respiration

Glycolysis- Breaks down sugar in G3P and then Pyruvate

Citric Acid cycle- The cycle inside the mitochondria that starts by fixing Acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate to form citrate it releases NADH and FADH2

Oxidative phosphorylation- The ATP that is formed during the electron transport chain its named as such because it is the result of a redox reaction

Subsrate-level phosphorylation- Phosphorylation that occurs inside of an enzyme this type of ATP production occurs during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Acetyl CoA- This is an enzyme that Pyruvate transforms into upon entering the mitochondria it fixes to the citric acid cycle

Cytochromes- The protein complexes that are in the mitochondrial membrane and function in the electron transport chain

Chemiosmosis- The creation of a concentration gradient that powers cellular work

ATP Synthase- A protein that is in the membrane of the mitochondria it works like a small motor to power ATP synthesis

Obligate Anaerobes- Organisms that only use fermentation or other form of anerobic respiration and can’t survive with oxygen

Facultative Anerobes- Can use either aerobic or anerobic respiration to survive

Beta Oxidation- Breaks down fatty acids into two carbon fragments and then enters the citric acid cycle as Acetly CoA

Chapter Ten:

Photosynthesis- the process by which plants make energy storing molecules from sunlight and water

Autotrophs- “self feeders” Organisms that can sustain themselves without consuming other living things

Heterotrophs- Organisms that survive by consuming other living things

Chlorophyll- The green pigment located in the cholorplasts that absorb sunlight

Mesophyll- The tissue in he interior of the leaf where most photosynthesis occurs

Stomata- The pores in the leaf of the cell where water is absorbed

Stroma- The fluid within the chloroplasts

Thylakoids- Membrane sacs inside the inner membrane of the chloroplasts

Light reactions- The reactions where water is split and ATP and NADPH is formed for use in the Calvin cycle

Calvin cycle- Where Co2 is fixed to form G3P and later large carb molecules

Photophosphorylation- The way in which the light reactions power the formulation of ATP

Carbon Fixation- The initial adding of carbon to organic compounds

Wavelength- The distance between the peaks of light shorter the wavelength the higher the energy

Electromagnetic Spectrum- The entire range of radiation

Visible Light- The radiation with wavelengths from 380-750nm

Photons- Particles of light

Carotenoids- Acessory pigments that are able to absorb violet and blue-green light making photosynthesis more efficient

Photosystem- Contained within the thylakoid membrane these absorb light and transfer electrons from one to the other

Reaction-center complex- Part of the Photosystem this is a protein complex that aids in the absorbtion of light and exciting of electrons

Light-harveting complex- Made up pigments that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light

G3P- A three carbon sugar that is made during the energy investment phase of glycolysis and produced as a product of the Calvin cycle

Rubisco- The enzyme that Co2 fixes to the Calvin cycle

Photorespiration- When the Calvin cycles fixes O2 instead of Co2 to produce Co2 for photosynthesis

Chapter Eleven:

Signal Transduction pathway- The steps that are taken to get a signal from the membrane to the cellular reaction

Local Regulators- Signaling molecules that only travel a short distance to regulate the functions of nearby cells

Hormones- Chemicals used for long distance signaling

Ligand- The signaling molecules that bind to the receptor

G protein- Binds to GTP to be activated or GDP in the inactive which then opens up the G-receptor for signals

Receptor tyrosine kinases- The type of receptor that is activated by forming a dimmer and then adding P

Ligand-Gate ion Channel- a membrane receptor that only works when the signaling molecule opens it up for ions to flow in

Protein Kinase- An enzyme that transfers P from ATP to a protein

Protein Phosphatases- Enzymes that can quickly remove P from proteins

Second messengers- Small non-proteins or ions that work in signaling pathways

Scaffolding protein- A large relay protein that several other relay proteins attach to at the same time

Apoptosis- Programmed cell death performed to protect surrounding cells and prevent the reproduction of DNA dysfunctional cells

Chapter twelve:

Cell division- The reproduction of cells

Genome- A cells genetic information

Chromosomes- What DNA molecules are packaged into

Somatic Cells- Non reproductive cells that have 46 chromosomes

Gametes- Reproductive cells that only have 23 chromosomes

Chromatin- Complexes of DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes

Sister Chromatids- Every time chromosomes are duplicated into two of these

Centromere- The region where the chromatids are attached

Mitosis- Division of the nucleus

Cytokinesis- The division of the cytoplasm

Meiosis- The cell division that results in reproductive cells that have only one set of chromosomes

Mitotic phase- The part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis

Interphase- 90% of the cell cycle that includes growth and the copying of the DNA but not the actual division

Mitotic Spindle- Fibers made of microtubules and proteins that start to form during prophase it later plays a role in separating the chromatids

Chapter thirteen:

Heredity- The transfer of traits from one generation to the next

Genetics- The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation

Gametes- Reproductive cells (haploid)

Locus- A gene’s specific location on a chromosome

Clone- A genetic exact copy of something else

Sex chromosomes- The X and Y chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism along with other genetic traits

Autosomes- all the chromosomes an organism contains besides the sex chromosomes

Diploid cell- has a single set of chromosomes (gametes) N= number of chromosomes

Haploid cell- Double the set of chromosomes (somatic cells) 2n= number of chromosomes

Chiasma- the X shaped region that the homlogs cross over and hold together